tct_007 5..9

Practical teaching: great

presentations every time

David M. Irby, University of California, San Francisco

ffective presentations

involve careful preparation

and artful delivery of ideas

that connect with the interests

and needs of learners. Great

presentations illuminate, inspire

and challenge. Presentations or

lectures are particularly good at

providing a framework for

learning new concepts, modeling

a creative mind at work,

challenging accepted beliefs and

attitudes and stimulating further

learning. To create effective

presentations, good preparation,

organization, visuals and dynamic

delivery are needed.

PREPARATION

Preparation begins with an

examination of content, learners

and context. Understanding and

selecting the essential content is

the ﬁrst step in the process. Three

criteria for narrowing a topic

include focusing on what the

learners need to know, what is

important to learn, and/or what is

interesting. But the key is to

connect content with the needs

and interests of learners. Effective

presenters are able to transform

their content to meet the unique

needs of their learners. Contextual

variables to consider include time

frame, facilities and type of

presentation (for example plenary

presentation at a national meet-

ing, large lecture in a course

sequence, or a single clinical case

presentation).

ORGANIZATION OF

PRESENTATION

With a good understanding of

content, learners and context,

speciﬁc planning can begin on the

organisation of the presentation.

Like any good story, a presenta-

tion should have a beginning,

middle and end; or an introduct-

ion, body and conclusion.

Introduction

There are three purposes for an

introduction. First, the presenter

must capture the attention of the

audience. Concrete and dramatic

cases, stories, analogies and

examples work best. Second, a

preview of the entire presentation

should be offered in the form of

an outline of the key points, a

series of questions to be answered

or objectives. Third, the affective

climate or feeling tone of the

session should be ﬁrmly estab-

lished in the introduction. If you

want to encourage active partici-

pation, a friendly atmosphere of

openness and an invitation to ask

questions will help. When the

presentation is part of a series,

offer a bridge from prior presen-

tations to this one. Always con-

nect new ideas to the prior

knowledge of the audience.

Body

Effective presentations are built

around a single theme and have a

limited number of main points. In

a ﬁfty-minute presentation, three

to ﬁve main points are optimal. A

clear conceptual structure for the

presentation is particularly

important when reviewing

If you want to

encourage

active

participation, a

friendly

atmosphere of

openness and

an invitation to

ask questions

will help.

Practical

Teaching

June 2004 | Volume 1 | No 1| www.theclinicalteacher.com THE CLINICAL TEACHER 5

complex and difﬁcult information.

Cluster or chunk content into

main points and ﬁlter out

information by focusing on what

is important, needed and of

interest. Main points can be ar-

ranged chronologically, logically,

in a problem/solution, inductive

or deductive format. Each main

point should have several sub-

points, examples or supporting

material. Since maximum audi-

ence attention is attained at

about 12–15 minutes into a

presentation, it is important to

vary the methods used (i.e.,

questions, discussion, demon-

stration, video clip, illustration,

learning task assignments, self-

tests or other activities) approxi-

mately every 15 minutes. When

asking questions, use closed

ended questions and a show of

hands for large audiences and

open-ended questions for smaller

groups. The quality of responses

to questions will increase

dramatically with increased

wait-time (3–5 seconds). Such

methods of encouraging active

participation also keep learners

focused and engaged in learning.

Conclusion

At the end of a presentation,

summarise and conclude deci-

sively. You can summarise your-

self or ask participants to

summarise. In a presentation to a

large group, the usual signal for

the end of the presentation (and

applause) is ‘Thank you.’ In

ongoing courses, the conclusion

is also the logical place to provide

a bridge to the next class –

previewing the readings, assign-

ments or key concepts to come.

VISUAL AIDS

Visuals can dramatically

increase learning, especially

long-term memory. The key to

designing visuals is to keep them

simple, uncluttered and clear.

Practical tips for using black-

boards, overhead transparencies

and slides will be reviewed and

illustrated.

Blackboard

The blackboard is an inexpensive

and easy to use visual aide that

can provide students with an

outline of your presentation, a

visual representation of content

(for example charts or diagrams),

a record of students‘ thoughts,

and a summary of major points.

Some tips include:

1. Plan how you will use the

blackboard.

2. Use large writing so that

everyone can read it and print

legibly.

3. Talk to the audience – not to

the board.

4. Use multiple colours of chalk

to emphasise points or make

diagrams.

Overhead Transparencies

Overheads can be easily made but

require careful design in order to

be effective. One of the virtues of

the overhead is that you can leave

the lights on while using it.

1. Use approximately one or two

transparencies per ﬁve min-

utes.

2. Include only one major idea

per transparency.

3. Limit to seven words per line

and seven lines per overhead.

4. Use large type: 36–40 points

for title and 24–30 points for

major points. Use phrases, not

sentences.

5. Simplify drawings or charts.

6. Check the projector for work-

ing order and focus it. Posi-

tion the projector so that you

do not block the screen with

your body.

7. When showing the overhead,

face the audience, point to

the overhead itself, and turn

off the projector when you are

not using it.

Slides and Power Point

Presentations

With the ease and availability of

digital projectors and programs

like Power Point, it is easy to

create professional quality

visuals.

1. Use approximately one or two

slides per minute.

2. Include only one major idea

per slide.

3. Limit to seven words per line

and seven lines per slide.

4. Use large type, and upper and

lower case letters in a consis-

tent font.

5. Simplify drawings or charts.

6. Software libraries are available

on the web to add illustrations

and pictures.

7. Check the projector for good

working order and focus your

ﬁrst slide.

6 THE CLINICAL TEACHER June 2004 | Volume 1 | No 1| www.theclinicalteacher.com

8. Select a template that is

uncluttered and uses a dark

background with white and/or

yellow print. Do not use red or

green colored print because of

colour blindness.

9. Use an electronic pointer

carefully and turn it off when

not needed.

PRESENTATION DYNAMICS

Even the most well planned pres-

entation can be boring and hard

to understand if the presenter

lacks the ability to convey the

information in a dynamic fashion.

Presentation dynamics include

the skillful use of enthusiasm,

movement, gestures, voice and

eye contact.

Enthusiasm

A good presentation is dramatised

with energy and enjoyment of the

material. Enthusiasm is the high-

est correlating item to overall

teaching effectiveness in student

ratings of teachers. Characteris-

tics associated with enthusiasm

include the use of humour, energy

and passion. These behaviours

motivate learning, spark interest

in the topic and maintain interest

in the presentation.

Movement

Body movement can heighten

interest, emphasize key ideas,

communicate feelings and

connect you with the audience.

Stereotyped movement, such as

pacing, can be distracting.

Movement from one area of the

classroom to another can capture

interest and shift the focus of the

conversation to another part of

the room.

Gestures

Your hands and arms can help

make a powerful point and can

reinforce your interest in the

topic. The larger the audience,

the larger your gestures need to

be. Inappropriate movements can

distract from the presentation;

keep your hands away from pock-

ets, loose change or keys, micro-

phone cords or other distracting

objects.

Voice

Vocal variety and verbal pauses

can provide energy, boost interest

and provide drama to a presenta-

tion. Project your voice so it can

be easily heard at the back of the

room. If you have a naturally

quiet voice, increase the volume

of your voice beyond what you

normally feel comfortable with,

and use a microphone. You can

use pauses for emphasis at the

end of a series of ideas, as a

transition from one idea to the

next and after a rhetorical ques-

tion. If you want the audience to

respond to a question, wait at

least 3–5 seconds.

Eye Contact

Members of the audience want to

feel that you are talking to them

as individuals. Your gaze should

make contact with all members of

the audience. Consciously scan

the audience from side to side,

and up and down the rows of the

room. Find three friendly faces

scattered in the audience, one at

each side and one in the middle of

the audience, and move your gaze

between these friends.

NERVOUSNESS

Everyone, including the most

veteran presenters, gets nervous

before going ‘on stage.’ Some

anxiety is helpful, providing

motivation to practice and energy

for enthusiasm during the pres-

entation. If you feel nervous,

acknowledge it to yourself and

think of it as a friend rather than

an enemy. All of the same phy-

siological factors are at work when

you are enthusiastic as when you

are nervous – so just reframe

nervousness as enthusiasm.

The best counter-measure to

nervousness is good preparation,

a sense of control. Be a master of

your material and know your

audience. Practice your presenta-

tion multiple times, and visualise

positive mental images of a suc-

cessful presentation; in other

words rehearse for success.

Just before the presentation,

do something about your ner-

vousness. Arrive with sufﬁcient

time to prepare. Take a brisk walk

to work off the tension, sit tall in

your chair so that you look and

feel conﬁdent, or try to relax

yourself physically. Bunch up the

muscles in your body and hold for

ﬁve seconds, then relax. Repeat

some positive self-statements

such as ‘I am well prepared for

this presentation,’ ‘I have mas-

tered this material,’ ‘I care about

this audience and this topic,’ ‘The

audience will love this presenta-

tion,’ or ‘I am going to enjoy this

presentation.’

The ﬁrst 90 seconds of your

presentation will set the stage for

June 2004 | Volume 1 | No 1| www.theclinicalteacher.com THE CLINICAL TEACHER 7

the rest of your efforts. Create a

positive mental image for yourself

before you begin, move briskly to

the podium, arrange your notes,

look up and smile. Find a friend or

a friendly and responsive face in

the audience and make eye

contact, smile, and act pleased to

see him or her. Warmth helps to

break the ice and begin a positive

relationship with the individuals

before you. Take a deep breath

and begin with energy, using a

positive attention-getting

opener. Many people ﬁnd it

helpful to memorise the ﬁrst

sentence or two to ensure a

strong launch to the talk. Never

begin with an apology or a

statement about how nervous

you are.

These suggestions can help

you carefully craft and skillfully

deliver dynamic presentations.